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Titles:
 
Abstract
Identifying
accommodations for students with disabilities is an important part of
the collaboration that must take place between special and general educators
as a result of the regulations of the Individuals with Disabilities
Education Act (IDEA, 1997). The law has placed more emphasis on having
students with disabilities receive the majority of their instruction
in “regular” classes with the use of supplementary aidsand
services. Identifying these accommodations can be a daunting task for
new as well as veteran teachers because there are so many possible accommodations.
Onestrategy, PRESS, has been effective in the training of new teachers
and is based on the Learning Strategies Approach (Deshler, Ellis, &
Lenz, 1996). It helps teachers work through the identification process,
ensuring that the possible categories of accommodations have been considered.
Details about how the strategy is presented to new teachers and examples
of its use are described.
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Introduction
With
the implementation of the new regulations accompanying the Individuals
with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA, 1997), there is increased emphasis
on collaboration and co-teaching in inclusion settings. The law specifically
requires that:
“to
the extent appropriate, children with disabilities….are educated
with children who are not disabled, and that special classes, separate
schooling, or other removal of children with disabilities from the
regular environment occurs only when the nature or severity of the
disability is such that education in regular classes with the use
of
supplementary aids and services cannot be attained satisfactorily.”
(IDEA Sec. 612 (5) (B)).
By
definition inclusion means that students with disabilities are receiving
their instruction in the general education classroom with any special
accommodations being made available to them on-site. The vision of inclusion
emerges out of a belief that all students should be educated in their
neighborhood schools in the general classroom with individuals their
own age (O’Neill, 1994/1995). Inclusion has changed the way instruction
is being delivered to students with and without disabilities. In reality
students with disabilities are not the only ones who are benefiting
from the accommodations; their non-disabled peers are often able to
receive support from the additional resources,whether they be attention
from another teacher, knowledge of a new strategy or assistance from
some type of equipment or technology.
As
special and general educators begin to work together to plan collaboratively
for their students (not yours and mine, but ours!), it becomes important
to focus on both the unique individual and group needs of the students.
Accommodating these needs is a challenge, but anticipating areas where
students may encounter difficulty becomes easier when two professionals
engage in the preparation and delivery of instruction together. An accommodation
is an adaptation or change in the way instruction is presented or in
the way an assessment tool (i.e., individual and group measurement and
evaluation) is administered. Instruction and assessment can be adapted
or changed to help students meet the established standards – goals,
objectives, and outcomes. This implies that the standard is not reduced
or minimized in any way, but that students have taken an “alternate
route” in meeting the standard (Verbeke, 2001). This is an important
feature of an accommodation – one that needs to be consistently
communicated toall who are involved: parents, teachers and students.
For
students with disabilities, specific accommodations are specified in
their individualized education plans (IEPs). Recently there has been
more attention given to the need for documenting accommodations, particularly
in light of the trend toward statewide testing which is now being used
as an exit requirement (i.e., graduation). Many states are now mandating
that any accommodation requested for a student with disabilities on
statewide assessments must have been documented on that student’s
IEP and implemented during instruction prior to the statewide testing.
Thus the accommodation is not a “last minute” attempt to give
the student some sort of emergency strategy or “crutch” to
rely on, but rather it is an intentional, purposeful, practiced alternative
strategy or tool to accomplish the same goals as all other students.
As
designers of curriculum and assessment, teachers must have a repertoire
of accommodations in order to meet the many varied needs of students
with disabilities. In particular, general education teachers may not
feel as confident in their ability to identify the areas in which they
need to consider the use of accommodations.
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Strategy
Instruction
Strategy
instruction, a technique used to help students with disabilities become
more independent learners, is effective in assisting individuals in
identifying and executing appropriate techniques for particular problems
or tasks (usually of an academic nature) that they encounter. The strategy
is the “tool” which helps students in identifying the demands
of a task or problem. It helps them make decisions about how to approach
or solve a problem and ultimately assists them in monitoring the effectiveness
of the process they used. These strategies are effective because they
reduce time and consistently produce accurate results (Deshler &
Lenz, as cited in Mercer & Mercer, 2001).
One
popular strategy used by students in editing and revising written work
is called “COPS.” Students are encouraged to remember strategies
through some mnemonic, often an acronym, which represents a meaningful
term or phrase. In this case, students are to remind themselves that
a good paragraph will include the capitalization, overall appearance,
punctuation and spelling .
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Learning
Strategies Approach
The
Learning Strategies Approach, developed by Deshler and his colleagues
at the University of Kansas, is a good example of strategy instruction.
Created specifically to assist secondary students with disabilities,
this approach is actually a curriculum based on various strands, each
with several instructional strategies. Deshler et al (1996) have identified
three strands as central to such instruction: acquisition (learning
new information), storage (memorizing and retaining new information)
and expression and demonstration of competence (applying new learning).
They identify three qualities of effective strategies that include:
1.
content – the strategy leads to specific, successful outcomes in
a
sequenced manner, in a reasonable amount of
time;
2.
design – the strategy is easy to remember and has 7 or fewer steps;
and
3.
usefulness – the strategy addresses important, common problems
and
can be used in several situations (as cited
in Mercer & Mercer, 2001, p. 538).
One
other important aspect of strategy training is that when taught, strategy
instruction goes through eight stages. These include:
Stage
#1 – Pretest and Making Commitments (This serves as the motivation
for
learning the new strategy.)
Stage #2 – Describe the Strategy (Here the process is clearly
presented.)
Stage #3 – Model the Strategy (The strategy is demonstrated.)
Stage #4 – Verbal Elaboration and Rehearsal (The learner demonstrates
strategy.)
Stage #5 – Controlled Practice and Feedback (Here the learner
practices and
is evaluated on performance of strategy.)
Stage #6 – Advanced Practice and Feedback (The learner practices
and receives
more formal feedback.)
Stage #7 – Confirm Acquisition and Make Generalization Commitments
(The learner masters strategy and commits to using it.)
Stage #8 – Generalization
(The learner uses the strategy appropriately in multiple settings.)
(Ellis & Lenz, 1996, as cited in Mercer & Mercer, 2001; p.
539).
“PRESS”
Not
only are learning strategies important and effective for students with
and without disabilities, they can also be useful to teachers. One of
the most challenging areas that new special educators face is identifying
the appropriate accommodations for their students. As a teacher educator,
I decided to develop a learning strategy to assist in making this a
less overwhelming task. One such strategy that I have been using to
help a new special and general educator as they plan together to identify
their students’ accommodations is entitled, “PRESS."
In
using a modified version of the Learning Strategies Stages, here is
how this method is presented:
Stage
#1 – Making Commitments
Both
special and general educators agree that ensuring that the need of the
students with disabilities (SWDs) is important. We discuss the legal
and ethical implications of identifying and implementing the necessary
accommodations, whether it is for instructional or assessment situations.
I stress the need for the special educator, who is the SWD’s case
manager, to be an advocate. We further discuss the role
of an advocate and discover that an advocate will always have to press
forward with the needs of the SWDs.
Stage
#2 – Describe the Strategy
The
purpose of this strategy is to help special and general educators identify
the various accommodations that will assist SWDs in learning. Since
there are literally hundreds of potential accommodations to consider,
it is important to categorize them in a meaningful, organized manner
so that they can be identified in an efficient way. Since these teachers
are advocates for SWDs, they need to PRESS forward with the needs of
their students. The word press now becomes the acronym to remember the
strategy.
What follows are examples of each part of the strategy, or type of accommodation.
At the end of the article in Appendix A is a more complete list of suggested
accommodations for each of the five parts of the strategy.
P
– stands for presentation. How does the teacher present
information?
Teachers
now must think of the way they instruct and then consider various alternatives
to the presentation mode. For example, if they lecture, SWDs may need
to have the material presented in segments, given orally or written
in modified outline form.
R
– stands for response. How does the student need to respond
to the teacher? How does the student need to provide feedback to a given
task?
Teachers
must consider how their students are asked to demonstrate their understanding
of the assigned task and ultimately the performance assessment that
they might use to evaluate their SWDs. For example, accommodations might
be to have SWDs give responses orally instead of in writing, to draw,
dictate, use the word processor, or to be permitted to use editing devices.
E
– stands for equipment. What additional materials, equipment
or extra personnel are needed?
Often
SWDs need extra tools or even another person to help them complete the
task. For example, perhaps a scribe or buddy will be needed to write
or read some aspect of the assignment. Other ideas include use of technology,
color-coded texts and worksheets, texts-on-tape, pencil gripper, or
handouts with enlarged print.
S
– stands for scheduling. In what ways can the classroom
schedule or time management be improved?
It
is not unusual for SWDs to have challenges centering on time management
issues. Many have a difficult time focusing for long periods of time,
while others have particular times of the day when they concentrate
better. Some areas of accommodation might include providing extra time
for task completion, permitting frequent breaks, or scheduling most
mentally challenging tasks/subjects for “the most productive time
of day.
S
– stands for setting. Where can the student learn best?
Finally,
it is important for teachers to consider the learning environment, the
physical location of where instruction is to take place. Examples of
such accommodations might include seating arrangements (e.g., near front,
away from particular students, away from distractions), physical proximity
of teacher, and attention to ensure appropriate lighting and temperature.
Stage
#3 – Model the Strategy
At
this stage we now take a hypothetical student and I model the strategy
for the class. One example follows with suggested “challenges”
requiring an accommodation in italics.
Alfred has poor writing skills. He not only has a difficult time forming
his letters, but also with spelling the words correctly. Seeing a lot
of “text” on one page easily confuses him – it becomes
overwhelming. In addition, his English class of 35 students are scheduled
for 5th period, which is immediately after lunch. Alfred does his best
work in the morning after he has taken his medication.
(Verbeke, 2001).
P
(presentation) – Does Alfred have difficulty with the way the
teacher presents information? Yes. Alfred is confused when there is
a great deal of text. What can be done? Reduce the amount of text
and provide notes that highlight the most important points in a lesson.
R (response) – Does Alfred have trouble expressing himself
or in responding?
Yes. He has a difficult time writing and has poor spelling. What can
be done? Allow Alfred to orally respond when possible instead
of having to write out all work or do word processing.
E (equipment) – Is there any equipment or other personnel
who could help Alfred? Yes, possibly to help with his spelling and
writing. What can be done? Allow Alfred to use Spell Check to
edit his word-processed assignments (if other students are allowed
to edit too).
S (setting) – Does Alfred have any difficulty relating related
to where he learns? Yes, he is having a difficult time working in
a large class. What can be done? See if Alfred could be placed
in an English class that is smaller in size, where he might be able
to get more individualized attention, or ensure that his special education
teacher or instructional assistant is monitoring this class daily.
S (scheduling) – Does Alfred have any special scheduling needs?
Yes. He
has his most difficult class in the afternoon after lunch. . What
can be done? While reconsidering the English class, see if there is
any way that Alfred could take English in the morning when he is more
mentally alert and productive and after he has taken his medication.
Stage #4 – Verbal
Elaboration and Rehearsal
Here is where I present several examples of other scenarios of SWDs
to the prospective teachers so that they can “work through”
the same strategy with a partner. We begin with simple scenarios and
then build up to more complex case studies.
Stage #5 – Controlled
Practice and Feedback
Here additional practice is given in class as warm-ups or reviews with
an opportunity for immediate feedback as well. Identifying Accommodations
Stage #6 – Advanced
Practice and Feedback
Prospective teachers are given a chance to demonstrate their knowledge
with more advanced case studies and on exams.
Stage #7 – Confirm
Acquisition and Make Generalization Commitments
We discuss the prior examples and identify possible opportunities for
further use of the strategy (e.g., future courses, during field placements
and internships).
Stage #8 – Generalizations
Here are the actual
opportunities for students to apply the “PRESS” strategy
in authentic settings. Specific opportunities occur in the development
of an IEP for a yearlong case study, during their transitioning and
collaboration courses, and during their internship experience (i.e.,
student teaching). Ultimately many have reported the use of this strategy
as they begin their teaching careers.
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Conclusion
Thus
the use of learning strategies can be applied more broadly than just
to P/K-12 students with or without disabilities. While it was designed
to meet their needs, it clearly has potential for future and current
teachers, both special and general educators. The fact is that these
two groups must collaborate for the “common good” – that
of all students. In order to be effective collaborators in the inclusive
classroom, all educators must learn to identify and implement the appropriate
accommodations for SWDs, and all
students for that matter. The strategy PRESS provides an structure for
them to do this with relative ease.
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References
Deshler,
D., Ellis, E. S., & Lenz, B. K. (1996). Teaching adolescents
with Learning disabilities: Strategies and methods. Denver: Love
Publishing.
Individuals with Disabilities
Education Act (IDEA). (1997). PL 105-17. 105th Congress, 1st Session.
Mercer, C. D., & Mercer, A. R. (2001). Teaching students with
learning problems (6th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill/Prentice
Hall.
O’Neill, J. (1994/1995).
Can inclusion work? A conversation with Jim Kauffman and Mara Sapon-Shevin.
Educational Leadership, 52(4), 7-11.
Verbeke, K. A. (2001).
Accommodations and adaptations for instruction and assessment.
Unpublished manuscript. Princess Anne, MD: University of Maryland Eastern
Shore.
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Appendix A – Accommodations and Adaptations
for Instruction and Assessment
Presentation:
How is information presented to the student?
- Ensure
that worksheets and handouts are clear and accurate.
- Enlarge
the print.
Provide a verbal explanation along with a visual presentation.
- Divide
worksheets by cutting, folding, drawing lines, or blocking out areas
with an index card to focus students’ attention.
- Reduce
the amount of work assigned.
- Divide
worksheets/assignments into sections; have students work on one section
at a time.
- Assign
worksheets/workbook pages one at a time.
- Give
directions orally.
- Have
students repeat directions to ensure that they understand what is
expected.
- When
giving multi-step directions, use your fingers to demonstrate what
must be done first, second, third, etc. Encourage students to do the
same.
- Assign
a “buddy” or partner to read the directions from the board/book/screen/
handout to students.
- Allow
a peer with good note taking skills to photocopy his/her notes for
the students.
- Summarize
key points of the lesson to ensure that students have recorded important
information.
- Pair
students for reading assignments. Students can take turns reading
or one can read to the other.
- Set
a purpose for each reading assignment. Emphasized that we read in
different ways for different purposes. Teach students to skim to get
a general overview or to read carefully to locate specific information.
- Periodically
review the students’ notes to ensure that the most important
information is being recorded.
- Have
students’ review each other’s notes.
- Teach
the book “format” to the students.
- Review
the table of contents, index, glossary, etc. to ensure that students
know how to use the parts of the book.
- Write
key points on the board for students to copy for studying during a
lecture or oral presentation.
- Write
a step-by-step model of a class problem/example on the board/chart/
overhead for students’ reference.
- If using
a web-based course, include a set of class notes for each class session
with step-by-step models or examples.
- Provide
an individual model for students’ desks and/or notebooks.
- Alter
the rate of your speech.
- Give
a partial sentence, gesture or visual aid as a clue, if necessary.
- Shorten
the time for direct instruction.
- Provide
ample “wait time” for students having difficulty answering
questions.
- Alternate
instructional tasks. Short direct instruction can be followed by an
independent activity with a return to another short direct instructional
activity.
- If students
have difficulty reading, recruit a “reader” from another
class or pair with a peer.
- Provide
additional practice activities.
- Provide
a glossary in content areas.
- Provide
an outline of the lecture/class ahead of time or a partial outline
and have students follow and/or fill in the outline as the class progresses.
- Develop
reading guides.
- Use
graphic organizers.
- Provide
a written and oral overview of the lesson before you present it.
- Tests
and quizzes could be given orally. Use an instructional assistant
or parent volunteer to assist.
- Reading
assignments could be presented on tape.
- Make
arrangements for homework assignments to reach home with clear, concise
instructions.
- Use
an assignment sheet or notebook.
- Board
work and assignments may need to be printed in manuscript format as
opposed to cursive writing format.
- Quietly
repeat directions to student after they have been given to class;
then have the student repeat and explain directions to you. This can
also be done in pairs with the entire class.
- Accompany
oral directions with written directions for students to refer to later.
Response:
How
does the student need to respond to the teacher? How does the
student need to provide feedback for a given task?
- Have
students tell you how they solved a problem or arrived at a particular
answer. Ask them to explain written answers that make little or no
sense to you.
- Allow
students to dictate responses to an assignment or test on tape.
- Permit
students with poor handwriting to respond verbally or present papers
orally rather than in written format.
- Allow
students to check and correct their own assignments against a model,
either individually or in-group.
- Have
students skip every other line (or double space) on a rough draft.
This will give them extra room to edit.
- Have
students follow test directions carefully. Rehearse them on how to
mark true or false questions, multiple choice or recording responses
on computer scoring paper (e.g., scantron).
- Permit
students who have difficulty writing to answer questions orally or
via
word-processing.
- Permit
students to record their answers on the test rather than on an answer
sheet (e.g., scantron).
- Select
test formats that reduce writing requirements. For example, short
answers, multiple choice, matching and completion may be less likely
to penalize a student with poor motor skills. Have them use a scribe
for short answer/essay questions. Specific test modifications include
using a word bank for completion items, having the same number of
items in both columns of matching, and reducing the number of alternatives
on a multiple choice test to three. Also make sure that the test is
written on a reading level at or lower than that of the students.
Provide plenty of spacing, being sensitive to the motor and visual
demands.
- Allow
students to make drawings or diagrams to further explain their responses.
- Teach
students how to plan their work on timed tests.
- Teach
students how to use Spell Check and other programs that will enhance
the accuracy and quality of their responses when word-processing.
- Teach
students a simple editing system so that they can “proofread”
and edit their own work before turning it in to the teacher.
- Accept
homework papers dictated by them and recorded by someone else or on
tape.
- Allow
students to present their projects through demonstration, picture,
video, or other models.
Equipment
and Extra Personnel: What additional materials, equipment or extra
personnel could help?
- Color
or highlight worksheets to cue students who have difficulty reading
important words and concepts.
- Have
a color-highlighted textbook available in the media center/library
or online for students.
- Permit
the use of index cards to help students keep their place and focused
on the material.
- Arrange
for students to use word processing instead of handwriting. Make certain
that they know a word processing program as well as supportive programs
such as Spell Check, Thesaurus, etc.
- Arrange
for students to have access to electronic spelling devices (e.g.,
Franklin Speller).
- Permit
the use of calculators when problem solving. Encourage students to
use it to check their work too.
- Use
visual props and concrete examples.
- Have
other academic activities such as learning stations or hands-on materials
available when students lose attention or need additional support.
- Use
graph paper or turn-lined paper vertically to help students organize
math problems and to create charts.
- Provide
models as part of the room decorations. For example, in math the bulletin
board could show how to solve a problem step-by-step.
- Encourage
students to use an assignment sheet or notebook. Check to make sure
that students are recording the assignments and that they are doing
so accurately.
- Assign
a “buddy” to a student who has difficulty in changing classes
or is constantly late to class.
- Label
specific content-related materials (e.g., laboratory equipment) that
may be difficult to read and/or are very technical but important.
- Suggest
that students place color-coded marks (i.e., round, colored adhesive
dots) on books, notebooks, folders, disks or other materials that
they keep in their lockers to remind them of what they need for specific
classes (e.g., morning, afternoon; English, math, biology).
- Provide
texts-on-tape.
- Provide
wide spacing for written materials. Have few items per page and clear,
large print (no less than 12-point font).
- Use
the overhead projector, computer-projection, etc., to highlight, organize,
motivate and focus attention.
- Use
a language master to reinforce specific facts and concepts so that
students can have a multi-sensory reinforcement/review (i.e., visual
and auditory).
- Use
self-correcting materials in learning stations, interactive bulletin
boards and games so that students receive immediate reinforcement
and know whether or not their work is correct/accurate.
- Provide
a pencil/pen gripper for students who may be applying too much pressure
when they write.
- Have
a scribe for students who have difficulty with writing. Make sure
the student and scribe have been trained to work together.
Scheduling:
In what ways can the classroom schedule or time management be
improved?
- Permit
additional time for students to complete assignments or tests.
- Give
frequent quizzes (e.g., every other day; weekly) that cover specified
topics instead of one, long unit exam/test.
- Divide
tasks/assignments into parts; give one part at a time.
- Provide
distributed practice and drill for new and previously learned tasks
and skills.
- Allow
frequent breaks; vary activities often.
- Check
often for understanding.
- Identify
the students’ most productive “time of day” and schedule
mentally challenging tasks at that time.
Setting:
Where can the student learn best?
- Seat
students at a carrel to reduce external stimuli.
- Adjust
the lighting and temperature in the room.
- Have
students who require special attention sit in the front of the room
or in another preferred seat.
- Reduce
the number of visual and/or auditory distractions in the room. Be
aware of the open spaces, bulletin boards, displays, etc.
- Wear
clothing and accessories that are not distracting.
- Seat
students close to the board or area where writing or demonstrations
are taking place.
- Seat
students away from the windows to avoid the glare.
- Seat
students away from his/her other students who may serve as a distraction.
- Reduce
the amount of physical activity in the classroom to eliminate additional/unnecessary
distractions.
- Increase
the likelihood of a student attending to instruction by standing close
to him/her. Touch the student’s desk as a reminder to focus and
pay attention.
- Make
sure the students’ work areas are clear of unnecessary material
that may serve as distractions.
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Appendix
B – Simple Scenarios for Identifying Accommodations Using “PRESS”
Example
#1:
Your teacher is giving oral instructions about how to do an assignment.
There are 5 steps that you must follow in order to complete the assignment.
A student has poor auditory memory skills and can only remember 2-3
of the steps. What could the teacher do to help?
Which
type of accommodation is needed? (Answer: Presentation)
Example
#2:
A student consistently has a difficult time filling in the “bubbles”
on those scantron sheets, which are machine-scored. The teacher gives
most of her tests with a scantron response sheet. What can the teacher
do to help?
Which
type of accommodation is needed? (Answer: Response)
Example #3:
A high school student has several “basic facts” in multiplication
and division which he has not mastered after several years of practice.
He is required to do more advanced math that requires him to know those
facts in order to solve problems. What could help this student?
Which type of accommodation is needed? (Answer: Equipment or extra
personnel.)
Example #4:
A middle school student has a very short attention span. Her classes
are 50-minutes each. One of her teachers likes to lecture and the student
has a difficult time concentrating. What could the teacher do to help
this student?
Which type of accommodation is needed? (Answer: Scheduling)
Example #5:
A student is very distracted by bright colors. What could a teacher
do to help this student in his classroom?
Which type of accommodation is needed? (Answer: Setting)
What accommodations can you make for each of the above five
examples? Here are some possible accommodations.
Presentation – Provide the student with a set of written
instructions.
Response - Permit the student to write answers on the test.
Equipment/extra personnel - Allow the student to use a calculator
or multiplication chart.
Scheduling - Provide instruction in shorter chunks of time.
Setting - Reduce the amount of stimulation in the classroom;
move student to a carrel or to another less distracting area.
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